Big Jewish Questions 1: Who is God?
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Binding of Isaac from "Hispano-Moresque Haggadah" (BL Oriental 2737 f93v), Castile, c. 1300

וַיֹּ֗אמֶר אָנֹכִי֙ אֱלֹקֵ֣י אָבִ֔יךָ אֱלֹקֵ֧י אַבְרָהָ֛ם אֱלֹקֵ֥י יִצְחָ֖ק וֵאלֹקֵ֣י יַעֲקֹ֑ב וַיַּסְתֵּ֤ר מֹשֶׁה֙ פָּנָ֔יו כִּ֣י יָרֵ֔א מֵהַבִּ֖יט אֶל־הָאֱלֹקִֽים׃ וַיֹּ֣אמֶר ה' רָאֹ֥ה רָאִ֛יתִי אֶת־עֳנִ֥י עַמִּ֖י אֲשֶׁ֣ר בְּמִצְרָ֑יִם וְאֶת־צַעֲקָתָ֤ם שָׁמַ֙עְתִּי֙ מִפְּנֵ֣י נֹֽגְשָׂ֔יו כִּ֥י יָדַ֖עְתִּי אֶת־מַכְאֹבָֽיו׃ וָאֵרֵ֞ד לְהַצִּיל֣וֹ ׀ מִיַּ֣ד מִצְרַ֗יִם וּֽלְהַעֲלֹתוֹ֮ מִן־הָאָ֣רֶץ הַהִוא֒ אֶל־אֶ֤רֶץ טוֹבָה֙ וּרְחָבָ֔ה אֶל־אֶ֛רֶץ זָבַ֥ת חָלָ֖ב וּדְבָ֑שׁ אֶל־מְק֤וֹם הַֽכְּנַעֲנִי֙ וְהַ֣חִתִּ֔י וְהָֽאֱמֹרִי֙ וְהַפְּרִזִּ֔י וְהַחִוִּ֖י וְהַיְבוּסִֽי׃

And [God] said: “I am the God of your father’s [house]—the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.” And Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at God. The LORD continued, “I have marked well the plight of My people in Egypt and have heeded their outcry because of their taskmasters; yes, I am mindful of their sufferings. I have come down to rescue them from the Egyptians and to bring them out of that land to a good and spacious land, a land flowing with milk and honey, the region of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites.

What can we infer about God from these Exodus texts? Are they describing the same God? What do you still want to know about God?
וְאָמַר רַבִּי חָמָא בְּרַבִּי חֲנִינָא, מַאי דִּכְתִיב: ״אַחֲרֵי ה׳ אֱלֹקֵיכֶם תֵּלֵכוּ״, וְכִי אֶפְשָׁר לוֹ לְאָדָם לְהַלֵּךְ אַחַר שְׁכִינָה? וַהֲלֹא כְּבָר נֶאֱמַר ״כִּי ה׳ אֱלֹקֶיךָ אֵשׁ אוֹכְלָה הוּא״! אֶלָּא, לְהַלֵּךְ אַחַר מִדּוֹתָיו שֶׁל הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא: מָה הוּא מַלְבִּישׁ עֲרוּמִּים, דִּכְתִיב: ״וַיַּעַשׂ ה׳ אֱלֹקִים לְאָדָם וּלְאִשְׁתּוֹ כׇּתְנוֹת עוֹר וַיַּלְבִּשֵׁם״ — אַף אַתָּה הַלְבֵּשׁ עֲרוּמִּים. הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא בִּיקֵּר חוֹלִים, דִּכְתִיב: ״וַיֵּרָא אֵלָיו ה׳ בְּאֵלֹנֵי מַמְרֵא״ — אַף אַתָּה בַּקֵּר חוֹלִים. הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא נִיחֵם אֲבֵלִים, דִּכְתִיב: ״וַיְהִי אַחֲרֵי מוֹת אַבְרָהָם וַיְבָרֶךְ אֱלֹקִים אֶת יִצְחָק בְּנוֹ״ — אַף אַתָּה נַחֵם אֲבֵלִים. הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא קָבַר מֵתִים, דִּכְתִיב: ״וַיִּקְבֹּר אוֹתוֹ בַּגַּי״ — אַף אַתָּה קְבוֹר מֵתִים.

And Rabbi Ḥama, son of Rabbi Ḥanina, says: What is the meaning of that which is written: “You shall follow [lit., "walk"] after the Lord your God, [and you shall fear God, and keep God's commandments, and listen to God's voice, and serve God, and hold fast to God]” (Deut. 13:5)? But is it possible for a person to follow the Divine Presence? But hasn’t it already been stated: “For the Lord your God is a devouring fire” (Deut. 4:24)? Rather, one should follow the attributes of the Holy One of Blessing. Just as God clothes the naked, as it is written: “And the Lord God made for Adam and for his wife garments of skin, and clothed them” (Gen. 3:21), so too, should you clothe the naked. Just as the Holy One of Blessing visits the sick, as it is written “And the Lord appeared to [Abraham after his circumcision] by the terebinths of Mamre” (Gen. 18:1), so too, should you visit the sick. Just as the Holy One of Blessing consoles mourners, as it is written: “And it came to pass after the death of Abraham, that God blessed Isaac his son” (Gen. 25:11), so too, should you console mourners. Just as the Holy One of Blessing buried the dead, as it is written: “And [Moses] was buried in the valley” (Deut. 34:6), so too, should you bury the dead.

אָמַר רָבִין בַּר רַב אַדָּא, אָמַר רַבִּי יִצְחָק: מִנַּיִן שֶׁהַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא מָצוּי בְּבֵית הַכְּנֶסֶת — שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״אֱלֹהִים נִצָּב בַּעֲדַת אֵל״. וּמִנַּיִן לַעֲשָׂרָה שֶׁמִּתְפַּלְּלִין שֶׁשְּׁכִינָה עִמָּהֶם — שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״אֱלֹהִים נִצָּב בַּעֲדַת אֵל״. וּמִנַּיִן לִשְׁלֹשָׁה שֶׁיּוֹשְׁבִין בַּדִּין שֶׁשְּׁכִינָה עִמָּהֶם, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״בְּקֶרֶב אֱלֹקִים יִשְׁפֹּט״. וּמִנַּיִן לִשְׁנַיִם שֶׁיּוֹשְׁבִין וְעוֹסְקִין בַּתּוֹרָה שֶׁשְּׁכִינָה עִמָּהֶם — שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״אָז נִדְבְּרוּ יִרְאֵי ה׳ אִישׁ אֶל רֵעֵהוּ וַיַּקְשֵׁב ה׳״ וְגוֹ׳.... וּמִנַּיִן שֶׁאֲפִילּוּ אֶחָד שֶׁיּוֹשֵׁב וְעוֹסֵק בַּתּוֹרָה שֶׁשְּׁכִינָה עִמּוֹ — שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״בְּכָל הַמָּקוֹם אֲשֶׁר אַזְכִּיר אֶת שְׁמִי אָבוֹא אֵלֶיךָ וּבֵרַכְתִּיךָ״.

Ravin bar Rav Adda said that Rabbi Yitzḥak said: From where is it derived that the Holy One of Blessing is found in a beit knesset? As it is stated: “God stands in the congregation of God; [in the midst of the judges God judges]” (Ps. 82:1). And from where is it derived that ten people who pray, the Divine Presence is with them? As it is stated: “God stands in the congregation of God,” [and “congregation” = minyan]. From where is it derived that three who sit in judgment, the Divine Presence is with them? As it is stated: “In the midst of the judges God judges,” [and a minimum court is three judges]. From where is it derived that two who sit and engage in Torah, the Divine Presence is with them? As it is stated: “Then they that feared the Lord spoke one with the other, and the Lord listened” (Mal. 3:16).... And from where is it derived that when even one sits and engages in Torah, the Divine Presence is with them? As it is stated: “In every place where I cause My Name to be mentioned, I will come to you and bless you” (Ex. 20:21).

וַיֵּ֤רֶד ה' בֶּֽעָנָ֔ן וַיִּתְיַצֵּ֥ב עִמּ֖וֹ שָׁ֑ם וַיִּקְרָ֥א בְשֵׁ֖ם ה'׃ וַיַּעֲבֹ֨ר ה' ׀ עַל־פָּנָיו֮ וַיִּקְרָא֒ ה' ׀ ה' אֵ֥ל רַח֖וּם וְחַנּ֑וּן אֶ֥רֶךְ אַפַּ֖יִם וְרַב־חֶ֥סֶד וֶאֱמֶֽת׃ נֹצֵ֥ר חֶ֙סֶד֙ לָאֲלָפִ֔ים נֹשֵׂ֥א עָוֺ֛ן וָפֶ֖שַׁע וְחַטָּאָ֑ה וְנַקֵּה֙ לֹ֣א יְנַקֶּ֔ה פֹּקֵ֣ד ׀ עֲוֺ֣ן אָב֗וֹת עַל־בָּנִים֙ וְעַל־בְּנֵ֣י בָנִ֔ים עַל־שִׁלֵּשִׁ֖ים וְעַל־רִבֵּעִֽים׃

The LORD came down in a cloud—and stood with [Moses] there, proclaiming the name the LORD. The LORD passed before him and proclaimed: The LORD, the LORD, a God compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, abounding in kindness and faithfulness, extending kindness to the thousandth generation, forgiving iniquity, transgression, and sin—yet not remitting all punishment, but visiting the iniquity of parents upon children and children’s children, upon the third and fourth generations.”

What can we infer about God from these Talmudic texts? Is this the Torah/Tanakh's idea of God or the rabbis' ? What do you still want to know?

יְסוֹד הַיְסוֹדוֹת וְעַמּוּד הַחָכְמוֹת לֵידַע שֶׁיֵּשׁ שָׁם מָצוּי רִאשׁוֹן. וְהוּא מַמְצִיא כָּל נִמְצָא. וְכָל הַנִּמְצָאִים מִשָּׁמַיִם וָאָרֶץ וּמַה שֶּׁבֵּינֵיהֶם לֹא נִמְצְאוּ אֶלָּא מֵאֲמִתַּת הִמָּצְאוֹ:.... הוּא שֶׁהַנָּבִיא אוֹמֵר (ירמיה י י) "וַה' אֱלֹקִים אֱמֶת". הוּא לְבַדּוֹ הָאֱמֶת וְאֵין לְאַחֵר אֱמֶת כַּאֲמִתָּתוֹ. וְהוּא שֶׁהַתּוֹרָה אוֹמֶרֶת (דברים ד לה) "אֵין עוֹד מִלְּבַדּוֹ". כְּלוֹמַר אֵין שָׁם מָצוּי אֱמֶת מִלְּבַדּוֹ כְּמוֹתוֹ:

הַמָּצוּי הַזֶּה הוּא אֱלֹקֵי הָעוֹלָם אֲדוֹן כָּל הָאָרֶץ. וְהוּא הַמַּנְהִיג הַגַּלְגַּל בְּכֹחַ שֶׁאֵין לוֹ קֵץ וְתַכְלִית. בְּכֹחַ שֶׁאֵין לוֹ הֶפְסֵק. שֶׁהַגַּלְגַּל סוֹבֵב תָּמִיד וְאִי אֶפְשָׁר שֶׁיִּסֹּב בְּלֹא מְסַבֵּב. וְהוּא בָּרוּךְ הוּא הַמְסַבֵּב אוֹתוֹ בְּלֹא יָד וּבְלֹא גּוּף:

וִידִיעַת דָּבָר זֶה מִצְוַת עֲשֵׂה שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שמות כ ב) "אָנֹכִי ה' אֱלֹקֶיךָ". וְכָל הַמַּעֲלֶה עַל דַּעְתּוֹ שֶׁיֵּשׁ שָׁם אֱלוֹקַּ אַחֵר חוּץ מִזֶּה עוֹבֵר בְּלֹא תַּעֲשֶׂה שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שמות כ ג) "לֹא יִהְיֶה לְךָ אֱלֹקִים אֲחֵרִים עַל פָּנָי". וְכוֹפֵר בָּעִקָּר שֶׁזֶּהוּ הָעִקָּר הַגָּדוֹל שֶׁהַכּל תָּלוּי בּוֹ:

הֲרֵי מְפֹרָשׁ בַּתּוֹרָה וּבַנְּבִיאִים שֶׁאֵין הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא גּוּף וּגְוִיָּה שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (יהושע ב יא) "כִּי ה' אֱלֹקֵיכֶם הוּא אֱלֹקִים בַּשָּׁמַיִם מִמַּעַל וְעַל הָאָרֶץ מִתָּחַת". וְהַגּוּף לֹא יִהְיֶה בִּשְׁנֵי מְקוֹמוֹת. וְנֶאֱמַר (דברים ד טו) "כִּי לֹא רְאִיתֶם כָּל תְּמוּנָה". וְנֶאֱמַר (ישעיה מ כה) "וְאֶל מִי תְדַמְּיוּנִי וְאֶשְׁוֶה". וְאִלּוּ הָיָה גּוּף הָיָה דּוֹמֶה לִשְׁאָר גּוּפִים: .... אִם כֵּן מַהוּ זֶה שֶׁכָּתוּב בַּתּוֹרָה "וְתַחַת רַגְלָיו". (שמות לא יח) "כְּתוּבִים בְּאֶצְבַּע אֱלֹקִים". "יַד ה'". "עֵינֵי ה'". "אָזְנֵי ה'". וְכַיּוֹצֵא בִּדְבָרִים הָאֵלּוּ. הַכּל לְפִי דַּעְתָּן שֶׁל בְּנֵי אָדָם הוּא שֶׁאֵינָן מַכִּירִין אֶלָּא (הַנּוֹפוֹת) [הַגּוּפוֹת] וְדִבְּרָה תּוֹרָה כִּלְשׁוֹן בְּנֵי אָדָם. וְהַכּל כִּנּוּיִים הֵן. שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (דברים לב מא) "אִם שַׁנּוֹתִי בְּרַק חַרְבִּי". וְכִי חֶרֶב יֵשׁ לוֹ וּבְחֶרֶב הוּא הוֹרֵג אֶלָּא מָשָׁל וְהַכּל מָשָׁל....

מַהוּ זֶה שֶׁבִּקֵּשׁ משֶׁה רַבֵּנוּ לְהַשִּׂיג כְּשֶׁאָמַר (שמות לג יח) "הַרְאֵנִי נָא אֶת כְּבֹדֶךָ". בִּקֵּשׁ לֵידַע אֲמִתַּת הִמָּצְאוֹ שֶׁל הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא עַד שֶׁיִּהְיֶה יָדוּעַ בְּלִבּוֹ כְּמוֹ יְדִיעַת אֶחָד מִן הָאֲנָשִׁים שֶׁרָאָה פָּנָיו וְנֶחְקְקָה צוּרָתוֹ בְּלִבּוֹ שֶׁנִּמְצָא אוֹתוֹ הָאִישׁ נִפְרָד בְּדַעְתּוֹ מִשְּׁאָר הָאֲנָשִׁים....

The foundation of all foundations and the pillar of wisdom is to know that there is a Primary Being who brought into being all existence. All the beings of the heavens, the earth, and what is between them came into existence only from the truth of God's being.... This is implied by the prophet's statement [Jer. 10:10]: "And God, your Lord, is true" - i.e., God alone is true and no other entity possesses truth that compares to God truth. This is what [is meant by] the Torah's statement [Deut. 4:35]: "There is nothing else aside from God" - i.e., aside from God, there is no true existence like God's.

This entity is the God of the world and the Lord of the entire earth. God controls the sphere with infinite and unbounded power. This power [continues] without interruption, because the sphere is constantly revolving, and it is impossible for it to revolve without someone causing it to revolve. [That one is] the God of blessing, who causes it to revolve without a hand or any corporeal dimension. The knowledge of this concept is a positive commandment, as [Ex. 20:2]: "I am God, your Lord...." Anyone who presumes that there is another god transgresses a negative commandment, as [Ex. 20:3] states: "You shall have no other gods before Me" and denies a fundamental principle [of faith], because this is the great principle [of faith] upon which all depends.....

Behold, it is explicitly stated in the Torah and prophets that the Holy One of Blessing is not a body or physical form, as [Deut. 4:39, Josh. 2:11] states: "Because God, your Lord, is the Lord in the heavens above and the earth below," and a body cannot exist in two places [simultaneously].... If so, what is the meaning of the expressions employed by the Torah: "Below God's feet" [Ex. 24:10], "Written by the finger of God" [ibid. 31:18], "God's hand" [ibid. 9:3], "God's eyes" [Gen. 38:7], "God's ears" [Num. 11:1], and the like? All these relate to human thought processes which know only corporeal imagery, for the Torah speaks in the language of man. They are only descriptive terms, as [apparent from Deuteronomy 32:41]: "I will whet My lightning sword." Does He have a sword? Does He need a sword to kill? Rather, this is metaphoric imagery. [Similarly,] all [such expressions] are metaphoric imagery....

[If so,] what did Moses, our teacher, want to comprehend when he requested: "Please show me Your glory" [Ex. 33:18]? He asked to know the truth of the existence of the Holy One of Blessing, to the extent that it could be internalized within his mind, as one knows a particular person whose face he saw and whose image has been engraved within one's heart, so that this person is distinguished within one's mind from other people....

אַנְעִים זְמִירות וְשִׁירִים אֶאֱרוג. כִּי אֵלֶיךָ נַפְשִׁי תַעֲרוג: נַפְשִׁי חָמְדָה בְּצֵל יָדֶךָ. לָדַעַת כָּל רָז סודֶךָ: ....

דִּמּוּ אותְךָ וְלא כְּפִי יֶשְׁךָ. וַיַּשְׁווּךָ לְפִי מַעֲשיךָ: הִמְשִׁילוּךָ בְּרוב חֶזְיונות. הִנְּךָ אֶחָד בְּכָל דִּמְיונות: וַיֶּחֱזוּ בְךָ זִקְנָה וּבַחֲרוּת. וּשעַר ראשְׁךָ בְּשיבָה וְשַׁחֲרוּת: זִקְנָה בְּיום דִּין וּבַחֲרוּת בְּיום קְרָב. כְּאִישׁ מִלְחָמות יָדָיו לו רָב: חָבַשׁ כּובַע יְשׁוּעָה בְּראשׁו. הושִׁיעָה לּו יְמִינו וּזְרועַ קָדְשׁו: טַלְלֵי אורות ראשׁו נִמְלָא. קְוֻצּותָיו רְסִיסֵי לָיְלָה: ....

I shall chant melodies and weave together verses, for my soul thirsts for You. My soul longs to live in the shadow of Your hand, that I might learn the secrets of Your mysterious being....

They portrayed You not as You truly are,

but imagined You from what You had created. In endless visions and countless metaphors they described You, but through it all, You are the singular one. They represented You as old and as young, with graying hair and in the prime of youth: as an elder on the Day of Judgment, and as a youth in time of war, as a soldier who was fully armed, and with a victory helmet on Your head, having won battles with Your right hand and holy arm – Your curls are full of drops of light, Your locks wet with the dew of the night....

What do you think of these medieval statements about God? Do they agree or disagree with one another? How do they relate to earlier God-statements?
Richard L. Rubenstein, After Auschwitz: History, Theology, and Contemporary Judaism 2nd ed. (1992), pp. 294-5
It must be stressed at the outset of this essay that the death of God is not something that has happened to God. It is a cultural event experienced by men and women, many of whom remain faithful members of their religious communities. No longer able to believe in a transcendent God who is sovereign over human history and who rewards and punishes men and women according to their deserts, they nevertheless render homage to that God in the rituals and liturgy of the community of their inheritance. They instinctively intuit that the "fence" of traditional meanings is indispensable to their sense of religious identity. As we have seen, believe in the sovereign God of covenant and election requires interpreting events such as the extermination of European Jewry and the bitter strife of our times as God's providential way of leading humanity to its final redemption. Many thoughtful men and women find this idea too great a strain upon their credulity....
In place of a Biblical image of a transcendent Creator God, an understanding of God which gives priority to the indwelling immanence of the Divine may be more credible in our era. Where God is thought of as predominantly immanent in the cosmos, the cosmos in all of its temporal and spatial multiplicity is understood as the manifestation of the single unified and unifying, self-unfolding, self-realizing Divine Source, Ground, Spirit, or Absolute. The names proliferate because we are attempting to speak of that which cannot be spoken of or even named, as mystics in every age have understood.
Mara H. Benjamin, The Obligated Self: Maternal Subjectivity and Jewish Thought (2018), pp. 13-14
Jewish thinkers in the twentieth century responded to the challenge of a shifted intellectual, political, and social landscape by rendering obligation not as the status imposed by God on the Jewish people, but rather as the result of encounters between two subjects in an everyday human relationship.... Adults' embodied, daily experiences of obligation vis-a-vis their children offer a path forward. Taking maternal experience as a starting point, obligation can become an alternative to both the privatized notion of obligation and the tendency toward abstraction we find in so much twentieth-century modern Jewish thought. And contrary to the construction of agency merely in terms of liberal, rational choice, a feminist examination of maternal subjectivity suggests that agency dialectically informs obligation and vice versa.
The theological implications of this pursuit are admittedly startling: if the rabbinic notion of obligation comes into felt experience most viscerally in caring for young children, then God is not an overlord but a vulnerable, dependent being who needs virtually constant attention. This concept inverts the biblical metaphorical economy, in which God is parent, not infant, and the rabbinic sources that speak of God as king and father, not as subject or son. But since these are metaphors, one in which God is imagined as a baby invites us to name the conditions of being obligated to God as being compelled and beguiled, shackled and infatuated, all at once. The care for an infant perfectly captures the pairing of command and love at the heart of rabbinic thought. If God is not only loving parent but demanding baby, we may find within ourselves the resolve to meet the demand.
What do you think of these contemporary statements about God? Do they agree or disagree with one another? How do they relate to earlier God-statements?